Special report: The psychology of gambling APS

Although formally classified in DSM-IV as a disorder of impulse control, the addiction model is presently the dominant theoretical paradigm explaining pathological gambling (Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002; National Research Council, 1999), and this will be reflected in DSM-V. The addiction model of gambling is based on the similarities in motivation, patterns of behaviour and consequences found among substance use disorders. Problem gamblers report excessive preoccupations with and persistent urges to gamble, repeated participation in gambling despite serious negative consequences, withdrawal and tolerance, and impaired control evidenced by repeated unsuccessful attempts to cease. Gambling takes on an increased salience in their lives, where the activity takes precedence over familial and other social obligations. Gambling is pertinent to neuroscience research for at least two reasons. This article is a summary of topics covered in a Society for Neuroscience minisymposium, focusing on recent advances in understanding the neural basis of gambling behavior, including translational findings in rodents and nonhuman primates, which have begun to delineate neural circuitry and neurochemistry involved. Dopamine has been a prime candidate for investigation of neurochemical abnormalities in pathological gamblers, given its established roles in both drug addiction and rewarded behavior.

On the other hand, a study of gamblers of ages 18 to 29 shows this age group has the highest risk of developing problem gambling or pathological gambling habits. Psychoanalytic therapy is another treatment option for gambling addiction. This therapy approach focuses on understanding the underlying psychological factors that contribute to the addiction, such as early childhood experiences or unconscious motivations. By exploring these factors, individuals can gain insight into their addiction and work towards changing their behavior. Treatment for gambling addiction typically involves a combination of therapy, support groups, and medication.

• Furthermore, taking a psychosocial and environmental approach reveals other factors other than those that pathologise the individual, which can be the focus of effective interventions.
• The cheap alcohol reduces our inhibitions, including the inhibition we have about spending money.
• I doubt that practicing health professionals would find much value in it.
• Last but not least, the desire to escape from negative emotions is also a reason.
• Without this plan, I could not help but wonder why a book on the psychology of gambling would fail to appreciate the biological and genetic underpinnings of behavior.

In particular, winning money (chasing losses) and relieving tension and emotional distress are implicated in promoting continued gambling (Clark et al., 2007; Platz & Millar, 2001). Importantly, the form of gambling and the environment in which it takes place are conducive to social interaction and this adds substantially to its inherent enjoyment. Hotel, club, casino and on-course venues are recreational locations that offer a range of entertainment options (food, beverage and shows). Within these contexts, gamblers can readily meet, interact socially, and test their luck and skill in pleasant and safe surroundings, leading to enhanced social integration and stimulation, self-esteem and a positive sense of recreation/leisure. In a detailed analysis of the offending record of 306 problem gamblers in treatment, Blaszczynski and McConaghy (1994) showed that larceny, embezzlement and the misappropriation of funds were the most common crimes reported.

Community and public health approaches to reducing gambling harm

Some reluctance to apply effective prevention measures is attributed to conflicting interests, in terms of balancing the goal of preventing and reducing harm with reductions in gambling revenue and potential changes in gambling as an entertainment for consumers (Adams, 2009; Williams et al., 2007). There is no typical personality profile found among problem or pathological gamblers. A number of studies have found elevated scores on some personality traits, such as impulsivity, with inconsistent findings on others, such as sensation seeking (see Raylu & Oei, 2002 for a review). There is no consistent finding in relation to extraversion, neuroticism and locus of control.

Behavioral economic aims to decompose the processes of option valuation into simple components that can be quantified with discrete parameters (Schonberg et al., 2011). Prospect theory (PT) remains the most influential of these accounts because of its ability to describe a range of common behaviors and deviations from normative expected value theory (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979). A central feature of PT is “loss aversion,” referring to the empirical observation that humans (and other species) are more sensitive to losses than to gains.

These results suggest that the prefrontal decision making system can be modulated by abstract beliefs and are thus vulnerable to factors, such as false agency and attribution. Pathological gambling was first recognized as a psychiatric disorder in 1980 and was grouped initially in the Impulse Control Disorders. An international program of research over the past decade has revealed multiple similarities between pathological gambling and the substance use disorders, including neurobiological overlap (Petry, 2006, Leeman and Potenza, 2012). Whereas the comparability with obsessive compulsive disorders was also evaluated, the support for placement on a “compulsive spectrum” was mixed (Hollander and Wong, 1995). This process culminated in the recent reclassification of pathological gambling (now to be called “Gambling Disorder”) into the addictions category of the DSM5 (Petry et al., 2013). This ratification of the so-called “behavioral addictions” is a pivotal step for not only the gambling field, but for addictions research in general. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a common treatment approach for gambling addiction.

Behaviorally, the overestimation of small probabilities may contribute to the attractiveness of gambles, such as a lottery (Trepel et al., 2005). Ligneul et al. (2013) tested this hypothesis in pathological gamblers, calculating “certainty equivalents” across varying levels of objective probability from 0 to 1. As expected, the results revealed elevated risk taking in gamblers compared with nongambling controls; however, this behavior was not linked to a specific distortion of small probabilities but rather to a general overweighting across the entire probability range. Similar approaches using the discounting framework have demonstrated fine alterations of value representations in the ventral striatum in pathological gamblers (Miedl et al., 2012; Peters et al., 2012). Prefrontal connectivity with the striatum is also implicated in choice behavior. Contemporary hypotheses of frontostriatal function emphasize a primary role in either action selection or reinforcement learning, both of which are likely important in substance addiction and behavioral addictions. To differentiate these elements, Seo et al. (2012) trained monkeys on a task in which they had to select rewarding actions using either reinforcement learning or perceptual inference.

Psychology and the gambling brain

Problem gamblers often interpret near-misses as evidence that they are mastering the game and that a win is on the way. Rodent models have also provided a means of examining the neurochemistry of gambling, implicating dopamine and serotonin influences. In light of the effects of dopamine agonist medications in Parkinson’s disease, it is notable that administration of selective D2 agonists did not affect choice behavior on the rat Gambling Task (Zeeb et al., 2009). However, whereas the D2 receptor antagonist eticlopride improved choice of the best option, amphetamine and the 5-HT1A agonist 8-OH-DPAT were found to impair performance (Zeeb et al., 2009).

Gambling as an Addictive Behaviour

Evaluations demonstrating effective prevention initiatives can be used to argue for investment in implementation to overcome the reluctance of vested interests, including those of governments that are dependent on gambling revenue. Combined pharmacological and psychological intervention is considered the optimal treatment strategy for many psychiatric disorders. However, there is a dearth of studies evaluating this in the treatment of problem gambling. Inherent in the gambling industry, and particularly in relation to gaming machines, is the propensity for consumers to lose control over their purchasing decisions (Dickerson, 2003). The predominant approach to responsible gambling in venues is via provision of signs and brochures, warning consumers about problem gambling and promoting counselling support services. Evidence suggests that problem and non-problem gamblers have similar motivations to gamble but the motivational strength differs for problem gamblers.

Existence, effectance, esteem: from gambling to a new theory of human motivation.

Pilot evaluations of new treatments for problem gambling are also warranted. This special InPsych report has highlighted the contribution of the science and practice of psychology to understanding gambling behaviour and addressing problem gambling. It is hoped that this overview of the current state of knowledge will encourage an increased focus by psychologists on this important public health and wellbeing issue. Although, historically, total abstinence has been viewed as the only legitimate and acceptable criteria of success, a substantial proportion of problem gamblers select controlled or reduced gambling as a treatment goal when it is available (e.g., Blaszczynski et al., 2005; Dowling, 2007). https://starzino.net/ This research also shows that few differences have been found between problems gamblers selecting abstinence and controlled gambling as treatment goals. Recent research has shown successful delivery of CBT with a goal of controlled gambling (e.g., Dowling et al., 2009; Ladouceur, Lachance, & Fournier, 2009), over the internet (Carlbring & Smit, 2008), and through self-help workbooks (e.g., Petry et al., 2006). The techniques employed in these studies have included cognitive restructuring, alternative activity planning, problem solving financial planning and limit setting, social skills and communication training, relapse prevention, stimulus control, in-vivo exposure and imaginal desensitisation.

Similarities in neurobiological activity and genetic abnormalities found among gamblers and those who are substance dependent involving cortico-meso-limbic brain structures suggest common molecular pathways (Goudriaan et al., 2004). However, caution must be exercised in concluding a causal link between biological markers and pathological gambling. Many associations are correlational in nature and neurobiological changes may reflect the consequence of repeated exposure to arousal and affective-laden stimuli and behaviours. Nevertheless, this is a promising area warranting further longitudinal studies. The presence of peers and family members whose social lives revolve around gambling, and the degree to which gambling is accepted as a legitimate pastime by others in the community, also comprise risks. For example, the gambling behaviour of family members, particularly fathers, is an important risk factor for the development of gambling problems.

All in all, cognitive biases, social norms, and environmental factors all impact gambling behavior. Another factor in the psychology of gambling addiction is the role of cognitive biases. These are automatic thought patterns that can distort an individual’s perception of reality. For example, individuals may believe that they have a better chance of winning than they actually do, leading them to continue gambling despite repeated losses. Additionally, individuals may exhibit confirmation bias, which is the tendency to seek out information that confirms their beliefs while ignoring information that contradicts them.

Many problem gamblers report intimate relationship and family difficulties (Dowling et al., 2009) or having lost or jeopardised relationships as a result of gambling (Jackson et al., 1997). Others report having put off activities or neglected their families because of gambling, and most report having lied to family members or engaged in furtive activities so as to conceal the extent of their gambling and the resultant losses (Productivity Commission, 1999). Gambling participation rates vary significantly according to age and gender. Men are typically more likely Starzino Casino than women to gamble on sports, casino card games and racing, whereas few sex differences in participation tend to be observed in relation to gaming machines and lotteries (Productivity Commission, 2009). Studies have linked gambling disorders to variations in a variety of brain regions, particularly the striatum and prefrontal cortex, which are involved in reward processing, social and emotional problems, stress, and more. Twin studies and modeling work suggest that genes explain half or more of individual differences with gambling problems, specifically.